There is a lot of disagreement about ‘colour in Islam’. Some colours appear to be recommended or forbidden. But this often differs between Quran and Hadith and different Islamic sects. There is very rich use of colour in arts and crafts in Islamic cultural traditions and modern visual creativity.
Pan-Arab colours
White, black, green and red, dominate the flags of Arab states.
Green
Green (Arabic: أخضر) is considered the traditional colour of Islam.
The Arabic word for “greenness” is mentioned several times in the Quran, describing the state of the inhabitants of paradise. Reclining on green Cushions and rich Carpets of beauty — Sura 55, verse 76.Upon them will be green garments of fine silk and heavy brocade, and they will be adorned with bracelets of silver; and their Lord will give to them to drink of a Water Pure and Holy. — Sura 76, verse 21.Al-Khidr (“The Green One”) is a Qur’anic figure who met and traveled with Moses.
The Green Dome, traditional site of the tomb of Muhammad, was painted green on the order of sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876–1909).
Green was used as the colour of the banners of the historical Fatimid Caliphate. The Umayyads fought under green and gold banners. Green is also used in several national flags as a symbol of Islam. These include: Afghanistan, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Comoros, Iran, Mauritania, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia. and Sri Lanka.
Black
The Abbasids chose black (blue) and fought under black banners.
It is often worn by Shi’ite Muslims, who mourn the death of Husayn ibn Ali, killed at the Battle of Karbala. Black cloaks are worn by the ayatollahs, the Shi’a clergy. In many Shi’a countries, a black turban is worn only by male sayids, men who descend from Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah and his son-in-law Ali.
Symbol of modesty in some Muslim cultures. It is the colour of the chador worn by devout Iranian Shi’ite women
Black is considered the colour of mourning in Western and Mediterranean countries. But this is seen as a Christian tradition.
White
The colour white symbolizes purity and peace.
Many Muslims wear the colour white when they attend Friday prayers and when performing sacred rites of pilgrimage.
In Sunni tradition, Muhammad wore a white kufi (head cap) with a black amaana (turban).
The Umayyads chose white for their battle standards when they fought the Abbassid during the Caliphate period
It has appeared on many Islamic flags since.
Red
Has no religious significance.
Some claim the hadith forbids the wearing of pure red clothing, it should be mixed with patches of other colours
Various countries on the Persian Gulf have chosen red flags
Blue and turquoise
many Islamic towns in the middle east, tend to have blue color? for example, the also many houses in sana city of yemen also painted the windows and the doors in blue color? even the villages in santorini Island of greece also painted in blue and white?………..the nazar bonjuk of turkey also in the blue color. Do you think is it possible that they painted the houses in blue, blue green, white and light yellow is because those soft colors are counteract the high color of the heat desert?
Turquoise
The colour turquoise greenish blue, has a special cultural place in Islam, though apparently not clear religious significance.
decoration of mosques and other buildings in Middle East: blue town of Chefchaouen in Morocco, blue town of Sidi bu Said in Tunisia, blue mosque and blue rooms in Topkapi palace of Turkey, blue in mosques of Isfahan and Shiraz in Iran
used in coats of arms, so that they could not possibly be mistaken for their Muslim opponents in the heat of battle.
Yellow
The yellow colour of gold symbolizes wisdom.
Brown
Brown is often believed to symbolize purity and peace.
The traditional colours of Japan are a collection of colours traditionally used in Japanese art, literature, textiles such as kimono, and other Japanese arts and crafts.
Standardisation of the Japanese colour wheel was conducted around 600AD and western recognition of it was as late as the mid-19th century, because Japan was largely secluded from the rest of the globe until that time.
Japanese Colour Wheel
Consisting of the primary colours: Red, Yellow and Blue, as well as the neutrals, both Black and White, the Japanese colour wheel spins with reference to the natural elements and is used as a tool to interpret the Japanese theory itself.
The earliest written history of Japan, which was a mix of fact and mythology, mentions the four oldest colour terms in the Japanese language: aka 赤 or red, kuro 黒 or black, shiro 白 or white, and ao 青 or blue. However, it has been proposed that these terms originally referred to the contrasting optical sensations of light and dark, clear and vague.
With time, these ancient colour terms evolved to have the red, black, white and blue meanings in use today (as well as acquiring other symbolic meanings, which we’ll get to later). However, traces of the original four colours persist in modern Japanese. Most proverbs and surnames that mention colour, for example, often involve these four colours. Additionally, only these four colours can be prefixed with the “pure” and “genuine” ma 真, to give us makka 真っ赤 or bright red, makkuro 真っ黒 or pitch black, masshiro 真っ白 or pure white, massao 真っ青 or deep blue.
Similarly, the original ambiguity of ao appears to have stood the test of time. A vague, overlapping, blue-green colour band, termed “grue” in anthropological lingo, may be used to describe the bluish-green (or greenish-blue?) of ao – which is notorious for causing the Western confusion between aoshingou 青信号 and “green traffic light.” Or aonegi 青ネギ and “green spring onion.”
The Japanese Cap and Rank System
The traditional colours of Japan trace their historical origins to the Twelve Level Cap and Rank System which was established in 603 by Prince Shōtoku – the pioneer of japanese unification – and based on the five Chinese elements.
In this system, rank and social hierarchy were displayed and determined by certain colors. Colors known as kinjiki (禁色, “forbidden colors“) were strictly reserved for the robes of the highest ranking government officials; for example, the color ōtan (orange) was used as the color for the robes of kuge and use by any other lower rank was prohibited.
The original Japanese system consisted of 12 levels, symbolised by 2 shades of 6 colours. Dark and light shades of, purple, blue, red, yellow, white, and black were used to show virtue and demonstrate an official position. Purple being ranked 1, while black is ranked 12.
Colors known as yurushiiro (許し色, “permissible colors”) were permitted for use by the common people.
Many of the names of these colours originate from Chinese culture, where the hierarchical colour system was historically even more complex. Due to the long history of use of this color system, some variations in color and names exist.
Other pigments
The names of traditional colours are often related to native plants and animals, especially those used to make pigments and dyes. Certain colours and dyeing techniques have been used since the Asuka period, while others had been developed as late as the Meiji period when synthetic dyes became common.
An example of this would be the Japanese color name, akaneiro茜色, which was produced by creating a dye from the root of a plant called akane grass. Another perhaps more familiar example is azukiiro小豆色, or the color of azuki beans (aka the most delicious thing ever, often the filling of daifuku mochi).
Colours were also named after animals, the most popular choice seems to be the mouse, or nezumi, which is used to express grey tones. For example budou nezumiぶどうネズミ, or grape mouse (purple grey), fuji nezumi藤ネズミ, or Fuji mouse (light purple grey), yanagi nezumi柳鼠, or willow mouse (light green grey), and cha nezumi茶鼠, or tea mouse (light brown grey).
Japanese Colour Meanings
Although there are these initial meanings attributed, there are a number of different interpretations of each colour in Japan. Semantics vary from island to island and some meanings overlap.
Japanese Primary Colours
Earth (Yellow)
Wood (Blue)
Fire (Red)
Water (Black)
Metal (White)
Earth (Yellow)
Yellow represents the element of Earth and the directional Centre, but also encompasses links with the Sun and Summertime, along with the warmth of mid-summer, and concepts like the virtue of Fidelity. It also connotes of courage.
But there are also a number of similarities between both eastern (courage) and western (cowardice) meanings. Saying that someone has a yellow beak is like calling them a rookie, and a yellow voice is associated with the high-pitched tones of shrieking children and angry women.
Wood (Blue)
Blue has strictly secular connotations. One theory is that because the Japanese never worshiped an all-powerful god dwelling in heaven above, blue never became associated with lofty, religious sentiments. As well as emblematising the element of Wood, the directional East, Spring time, and Benevolence, the colour Blue encapsulates Femininity, Purity, Passivity and Calmness.
Blue was a popular choice for:
ceramics, namely sometsuke 染付け porcelain
fine art, namely the aizuri-e 藍摺り絵 woodblock prints.
indigo dyeing industry that flourished in Shikoku during the Edo period. Kimonos are predominantly crafted in or dyed with this colour, due to the fact that Blue also reflects Japanese fashion. Young Japanese women traditionally wear blue to symbolise their innocence. Japanese business suits are often made in various shades of blue and students frequently wear blue “recruitment suits”, particularly for job interviews.
Red
Red came to be associated with authority and wealth, as attested to by red-sheathed samurai swords and ornamental combs. It also has ties to religion, as demonstrated by the red torii of Shinto shrines, whose shrine maidens are traditionally clad in red hakama 袴.
Black
Black exudes dignity and formality, and is used for the robes of Buddhist monks, as well as for montsuki 紋付, the kimono that bears the family crest.
An ancient Japanese tradition known as ‘o-haguro’, which is the practice of dying one’s teeth black, considered beautiful at one point in Japanese history.
Metal (White)
Symbolic of Metal, White is a symbol of Purity and Innocence. White is godly and sacred places are strung with shimenawa 注連縄 festooned with white shide 紙垂, or strewn with white pebbles or sand.
It additionally connotes the West, the seasonal Fall, and the virtue of Justice. Aside from the black cap, Shinto priests are adorned completely in the purity of White.
Intrinsically linked with the spirit in Japanese culture, the neutral noncolor that is White was traditionally used to represent mourning and grief.
Secondary Colours
Many other colours now have significant links with specific concepts.
Green
The word for both Blue and Green (ao – 青) was used to describe both colours and the word for Green is a much more recent linguistic emergence.
Nevertheless green is an incredibly popular and symbolic colour.
Existing in numerous shades, it is emblematic of Matcha green tea – Japan’s favourite hot beverage.
it represents Eternity, Life, Vegetation, Vitality, and a plethora of other meanings.
Purple
Royalty is linked with this colour across the globe; majestic and spiritually linked with divine rule. Purple is worn by the rich and upper-classes, to symbolise both Wealth and Prestige.
Pink
Pink holds great significance in Japanese culture: in fashion, in painting, in art, and in design, among other areas. As the dominant colour of springtime Japanese landscapes, thanks to the fields of blossoms, Pink represents Happiness, Youth, and new beginnings.
Chinese culture attaches certain values to colours, like which colours are considered auspicious (吉利) or inauspicious (不利). The Chinese word for “colour” is yánsè (顏色). In Classical Chinese, the character sè (色) more accurately meant “colour in the face”, or “emotion”. It was generally used alone and often implied sexual desire or desirability. During the Tang Dynasty, the word yánsè came to mean ‘all colour’. A Chinese idiom with the meaning “many colours” or “multi-coloured”, Wǔyánliùsè (五顏六色), can also mean ‘colours’ in general.
In Chinese mythology, the goddess, Nüwa, is said to have mended the Heavens after a disaster destroyed the original pillars that held up the skies, using five coloured-stones in these five auspicious colours to patch-up the crumbling heavens, accounting for the many colours that the skies can take-on.
Theory of the Five Elements (Wuxing 五行)
In traditional Chinese art and culture, black, red, qing (青) (a conflation of the idea of green and blue), white and yellow are viewed as standard colours. These colors correspond to the five elements (五行) of water, fire, wood, metal and earth, taught in traditional Chinese physics. Throughout the Shang, Tang, Zhou and Qin dynasties, China’s emperors used the Theory of the Five Elements to select colors. Other colors were considered by Confucius as ‘inferior’.
Yellow of a golden hue is considered the most beautiful and prestigious color.[2] The Chinese conception of yellow (黃, huáng) is inclusive of many shades considered tan or brown in English and the primary association is with the earth rather than the sun. The Chinese saying Yellow generates Yin and Yang implies that yellow is the center of everything. Associated with but ranked above brown, yellow signifies neutrality and good luck. Yellow is sometimes paired with red in place of gold.
The Yellow River is the cradle of Chinese civilisation. Yellow was the emperor’s color in Imperial China and is held as the symbolic color of the five legendary emperors of ancient China, such as the Yellow Emperor. The Yellow Dragon is the zoomorphic incarnation of the Yellow Emperor of the centre of the universe in Chinese religion and mythology. The Flag of the Qing dynasty featured golden yellow as the background. The Plain Yellow Banner and the Bordered Yellow Banner were two of the upper three banners of Later Jin and Qing dynasty.
Yellow often decorates royal palaces, altars and temples, and the color was used in the dragon robes and attire of the emperors.[2] It was a rare honour to receive the imperial yellow jacket.
Yellow also represents freedom from worldly cares and is thus esteemed in Buddhism. Monks’ garments are yellow, as are elements of Buddhist temples. Yellow is also used as a mourning color for Chinese Buddhists.
Yellow is also symbolic of heroism, as opposed to the Western association of the color with cowardice.[3]
A Peking glass vase in Imperial Yellow, a shade of yellow so named for the banner of the Qing Dynasty
Black
Black (黑, hēi), corresponding to water, is generally understood as a neutral color.
The I Ching or Book of Changes regards black as Heaven’s color. The saying “heaven and earth are black” was rooted in the observation that the northern sky was black for a long time. Ancient Chinese people believed Tiandi or the Heavenly Emperor resided in the North Star. The Taiji symbol uses black and white or red to represent the unity of yin and yang. Ancient Chinese people regarded black as the king of colours and honoured black more consistently than any other colour (??). Laozi said know the white, keep the blackand Taoists believe black is the colour of the Tao.??
Black is also used in many negative contexts in idioms and common names. “Black help” (黑幫, hēibāng) is the usual name for Chinese organized crime and the Thick Black Theory of the late Qing intellectual Li Zongwu (李宗吾, 1879–1943) is an exhortation to Machiavellianism.
In modern China, black is used in clothing, especially in professional contexts. Black has less association with mourning than white in traditional Chinese culture but formal black jackets and slacks have become associated with international professionalism.
White
White (白, bái) corresponds with metal among the Five Elements and represents gold (?) and symbolises brightness, purity, and fulfilment. Light-coloured skin is highly valued by many Chinese, especially in consideration of women as potential brides.
White is also the traditional colour of mourning, although white wedding gowns have become more popular since the Opening Up Policy.
Red (t紅, s红, hóng), vermilion (丹, dān), and crimson (赤, chì) are associated with masculine yang energy and fire, good fortune and joy. Red is the traditional color used during Chinese New Year and other celebrations, including weddings and wedding gowns. Chinese reds are traditionally inclusive of shades English might consider orange or warm brown.
A hongbao—a red envelope stuffed with money, now frequently red 100 RMB notes—is the usual gift in Chinese communities for Chinese New Year, birthdays, marriages, bribes, and other special occasions. The red color of the packet symbolizes good luck. Red is strictly forbidden at funerals as it is traditionally symbolic of happiness. The names of the dead were previously written in red, so it is generally somewhat offensive to use red ink for Chinese names in contexts other than official seals.
In the People’s Republic of China, red remains a very popular color and is affiliated with and used by the Communist Party and the government.
Old Chinese did not make a blue-green distinction, having a single “verdant” color (青, qīng) that covered both. The clear blue sky and fresh green vegetables were considered shades of a single color which could even include black as its darkest hue in some contexts. Modern Standard Mandarin does make the blue-green distinction using lǜ (t綠, s绿, “leafy”) for green and lán (t藍, s蓝, “indigo“) for blue.
Qīng was associated with health, prosperity, and harmony. It was used for the roof tiles and ornate interior of the Temple of Heaven and in other structures to represent heaven. It is also the colour of most jade as well as the greenware pottery that was developed to imitate it.
Separately, green hats are associated with infidelity and used as an idiom for a cuckold. This has caused uneasiness for Chinese Catholic bishops, who, in ecclesiastical heraldry, would normally have a green hat above their arms. Chinese bishops have compromised by using a violet hat for their coat of arms.
Intermediary colours
The five intermediary colors (五間色 wǔjiànsè) are formed as combinations of the five elemental colors. These are:[6]
綠 lǜ “green”: The intermediary colour of the east, combination of central yellow and eastern blue
碧 bì “emerald-blue”: The intermediary colour of the west, combination of eastern blue and western white
紅 hóng “light-red”: The intermediary colour of the south, combination of western white and southern red
紫 zǐ “violet”: The intermediary colour of the north, combination of southern red and northern black
硫 liú “horse-brown”: The intermediary colour of the center, combination of northern black and central yellow
Western colour theory was originally formulated in terms of three “primary” or “primitive” colours—red, yellow and blue (RYB)—because these colours were believed capable of mixing all other colours.
Goethe’s colour wheel from his 1810 Theory of Colours
18th and 19th Centuries
The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th-century theories of color vision,[citation needed] as the fundamental sensory qualities that are blended in the perception of all physical colors, and conversely, in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in particular the contrast between “complementary” or opposing hues that are produced by color afterimages and in the contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colours (1810) by the German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul. Charles Hayter published A New Practical Treatise on the Three Primitive Colours Assumed as a Perfect System of Rudimentary Information (London 1826), in which he described how all colors could be obtained from just three.
Page from 1826 A New Practical Treatise on the Three Primitive Colours Assumed as a Perfect System of Rudimentary Information by Charles Hayter
Subsequently, German and English scientists established in the late 19th century that color perception is best described in terms of a different set of primary colors—red, green and blue-violet (RGB)—modeled through the additive mixture of three monochromatic lights. Subsequent research anchored these primary colors in the differing responses to light by three types of color receptors or cones in the retina (trichromacy).
For much of the 19th century artistic color theory either lagged behind scientific understanding or was augmented by science books written for the lay public, in particular Modern Chromatics (1879) by the American physicist Ogden Rood, and early color atlases developed by Albert Munsell (Munsell Book of Color, 1915, see Munsell color system) and Wilhelm Ostwald (Color Atlas, 1919).
20th Century
On this basis the quantitative description of the color mixture or colorimetry developed in the early 20th century, along with a series of increasingly sophisticated models of color space and color perception, such as the opponent process theory.
Across the same period, industrial chemistry radically expanded the color range of lightfast synthetic pigments, allowing for substantially improved saturation in color mixtures of dyes, paints, and inks. It also created the dyes and chemical processes necessary for color photography. As a result, three-color printing became aesthetically and economically feasible in mass printed media, and the artists’ color theory was adapted to primary colors most effective in inks or photographic dyes: cyan, magenta, and yellow (CMY). (In printing, dark colors are supplemented by black ink, known as the CMYK system; in both printing and photography, white is provided by the color of the paper.) These CMY primary colors were reconciled with the RGB primaries, and subtractive color mixing with additive color mixing, by defining the CMY primaries as substances that absorbed only one of the retinal primary colors: cyan absorbs only red (−R+G+B), magenta only green (+R−G+B), and yellow only blue-violet (+R+G−B). It is important to add that the CMYK, or process, color printing is meant as an economical way of producing a wide range of colors for printing, but is deficient in reproducing certain colors, notably orange and slightly deficient in reproducing purples. A wider range of colors can be obtained with the addition of other colors to the printing process, such as in Pantone‘s Hexachrome printing ink system (six colors), among others.
Munsell‘s 1905 color system represents colors using three color-making attributes, value (lightness), chroma, and hue.
Major advances were made in the early 20th century by artists teaching or associated with the German Bauhaus, in particular Wassily Kandinsky, Johannes Itten, Faber Birren and Josef Albers, whose writings mix speculation with an empirical or demonstration-based study of color design principles.
Itten and Albers studied the interaction between hues and the ways in which our perception of hues and tones is altered radically by the other colours surrounding them.
Every digital image consists of a fundamental small-scale descriptor: THE PIXEL, invented by combining the words “PICture ELement.” Each pixel contains a series of numbers which describe its color or intensity. The precision to which a pixel can specify color is called its bit or color depth. The more pixels your image contains, the more detail it has the ability to describe (although more pixels alone don’t necessarily result in more detail; more on this later).
PRINT SIZE: PIXELS PER INCH vs. DOTS PER INCH
Since a pixel is just a unit of information, it is useless for describing real-world prints — unless you also specify their size. The terms pixels per inch (PPI) and dots per inch (DPI) were both introduced to relate this theoretical pixel unit to real-world visual resolution. These terms are often inaccurately interchanged — misleading the user about a device’s maximum print resolution (particularly with inkjet printers).
“Pixels per inch” (PPI) is the more straightforward of the two terms. It describes just that: how many pixels an image contains per inch of distance (horizontally or vertically). PPI is also universal because it describes resolution in a way that doesn’t vary from device to device.
“Dots per inch” (DPI) may seem deceptively simple at first, but the complication arises because multiple dots are often needed to create a single pixel — and this varies from device to device. In other words, a given DPI does not always lead to the same resolution. Using multiple dots to create each pixel is a process called “dithering.”
Printers use dithering to create the appearance of more colors than they actually have. However, this trick comes at the expense of resolution, since dithering requires each pixel to be created from an even smaller pattern of dots. As a result, images will require more DPI than PPI in order to depict the same level of detail.
In the above example, note how the dithered version is able to create the appearance of 128 pixel colors — even though it has far fewer dot colors (only 24). However, this result is only possible because each dot in the dithered image is much smaller than the pixels.
The standard for prints done in a photo lab is about 300 PPI, but inkjet printers require several times this number of DPI (depending on the number of ink colors) for photographic quality. The required resolution also depends on the application; magazine and newspaper prints can get away with much less than 300 PPI.
However, the more you try to enlarge a given image, the lower its PPI will become…
MEGAPIXELS AND MAXIMUM PRINT SIZE
A “megapixel” is simply a million pixels. If you require a certain resolution of detail (PPI), then there is a maximum print size you can achieve for a given number of megapixels. The following chart gives the maximum print sizes for several common camera megapixels.
# of Megapixels
Maximum 3:2 Print Size
at 300 PPI:
at 200 PPI:
2
5.8″ x 3.8″
8.7″ x 5.8″
3
7.1″ x 4.7″
10.6″ x 7.1″
4
8.2″ x 5.4″
12.2″ x 8.2″
5
9.1″ x 6.1″
13.7″ x 9.1″
6
10.0″ x 6.7″
15.0″ x 10.0″
8
11.5″ x 7.7″
17.3″ x 11.5″
12
14.1″ x 9.4″
21.2″ x 14.1″
16
16.3″ x 10.9″
24.5″ x 16.3″
22
19.1″ x 12.8″
28.7″ x 19.1″
Note how a 2 megapixel camera cannot even make a standard 4×6 inch print at 300 PPI, whereas it requires a whopping 16 megapixels to make a 16×10 inch photo. This may be discouraging, but do not despair! Many will be happy with the sharpness provided by 200 PPI, although an even lower PPI may suffice if the viewing distance is large (see “Digital Photo Enlargement“). For example, most wall posters are often printed at less than 200 PPI, since it’s assumed that you won’t be inspecting them from 6 inches away.
CAMERA & IMAGE ASPECT RATIO
The print size calculations above assumed that the camera’s aspect ratio, or ratio of longest to shortest dimension, is the standard 3:2 used for 35 mm cameras. In fact, most compact cameras, monitors and TV screens have a 4:3 aspect ratio, while most digital SLR cameras are 3:2. Many other types exist though: some high end film equipment even use a 1:1 square image, and DVD movies are an elongated 16:9 ratio.
This means that if your camera uses a 4:3 aspect ratio, but you need a 4 x 6 inch (3:2) print, then some of your megapixels will be wasted (11%). This should be considered if your camera has a different ratio than the desired print dimensions.
Pixels themselves can also have their own aspect ratio, although this is less common. Certain video standards and earlier Nikon cameras have pixels with skewed dimensions.
SENSOR SIZE: NOT ALL PIXELS ARE CREATED EQUAL
Even if two cameras have the same number of pixels, it does not necessarily mean that the size of their pixels are also equal. The main distinguishing factor between a more expensive digital SLR and a compact camera is that the former has a much greater digital sensor area. This means that if both an SLR and a compact camera have the same number of pixels, the size of each pixel in the SLR camera will be much larger.
Compact Camera Sensor SLR Camera Sensor
Why does one care about how big the pixels are? A larger pixel has more light-gathering area, which means the light signal is stronger over a given interval of time.
This usually results in an improved signal to noise ratio (SNR), which createsa smoother and more detailed image. Furthermore, the dynamic range of the images (range of light to dark which the camera can capture without becoming either black or clipping highlights) also increases with larger pixels. This is because each pixel well can contain more photons before it fills up and becomes completely white.
The diagram below illustrates the relative size of several standard sensor sizes on the market today. Most digital SLR’s have either a 1.5X or 1.6X crop factor (compared to 35 mm film), although some high-end models actually have a digital sensor which has the same area as 35 mm. Sensor size labels given in inches do not reflect the actual diagonal size, but instead reflect the approximate diameter of the “imaging circle” (not fully utilized). Nevertheless, this number is in the specifications of most compact cameras.
Why not just use the largest sensor possible? The main disadvantage of having a larger sensor is that they are much more expensive, so they are not always beneficial.
Does all this mean it is bad to squeeze more pixels into the same sensor area? This will usually produce more noise, but only when viewed at 100% on your computer monitor. In an actual print, the higher megapixel model’s noise will be much more finely spaced — even though it appears noisier on screen (see “Image Noise: Frequency and Magnitude“). This advantage usually offsets any increase in noise when going to a larger megapixel model (with a few exceptions).
NOTE: To be completed. I want to take a practical course on digital printing with the Camera Club and study this in depth.
If commercial print companies are used see image guidelines for each lab. Images need to be either JPEG or TIFF), with whatever colour profile is required by the printer (usually Adobe 1998 RGB or sRGB) at the specified resolution (usually 300 dpi) and at the exact dimensions required.
The Task
It’s not a requirement to submit prints for formal assessment, so you may choose to submit your work on the self-directed project in a different format, such as a book or a multi-media piece. However for the purposes of this exercise please imagine that you’re going to submit prints. 1. Search the internet for different companies offering inkjet and C-type printing. Compile three quotes for getting your work professionally printed, with a variety of different options such as C-type or inkjet, for portfolio review. (The pictures don’t need to be framed or mounted.) Prices will be available on the companies’ websites. This kind of information is useful to inform your project proposal. 2. Imagine you will order from one of these companies. Prepare one image file exactly as specified by the printers. Please note that you don’t actually need to have your work printed professionally in order to complete this exercise. 3. Write a brief entry in your learning log, reflecting on whether or not you feel that an inkjet can be treated as a ‘photograph’.
Different labs providing C-type printing use different machines and different brands of papers that will produce subtly different results and varying levels of quality. Some companies often offer postal services, such as sending test strips for you to assess, so you can instruct their technicians to make any adjustments to the exposure or colour balance before making the final print. They will then store the adjusted file for any future editions.
Digital C-Types (also known as ‘lambda’ or ‘lightjet’) use a digital-analogue hybrid process. This is the method used by high street labs nowadays, regardless of whether you supply them with a roll of film or a memory card. Traditional silver halide photographic papers are used in a machine that exposes the paper to light from LEDs or lasers that are directed by a computer, as opposed to the light transmitted through a negative in the darkroom enlarger. Once exposed inside the machine, the paper is passed through the same chemistry as that used in the traditional colour darkroom.
Since digital C-types are all but indistinguishable from C-type prints made from a negative in the darkroom, galleries and collectors will happily accept these kinds of prints. Although C-types are not absolutely permanent (we have all seen faded family photographs) and aren’t as resilient as black and white photographs to UV light, they have at least been ‘tried and tested’ in real life, rather than just in laboratory simulations.
Video Comparison of inkjet and C-type printing processes
Sources
Digital C-types are only produced by professional labs and institutions. The costs associated with setting up and running the equipment are very high and this is not a realistic option for most individuals. But many companies offer C-Types for less than the price of inkjets.
Different labs providing C-type printing use different machines and different brands of papers that will produce subtly different results and varying levels of quality. Some companies often offer postal services, such as sending test strips for you to assess, so you can instruct their technicians to make any adjustments to the exposure or colour balance before making the final print. They will then store the adjusted file for any future editions.
Inkjet printers use an array of different colours and tones of ink that are applied onto specially coated paper. Inkjet prints can be produced on inexpensive domestic printers to make prints up to A4 size, A3+ printers can be bought from eg Canon and Epson for slightly more. Costly ‘large format’ printers that can produce prints up to 1.6 metres wide and potentially many metres long (as long as the roll of paper that the printer can accommodate).
Inkjet prints have had a negative reputation compared to traditional C-type prints for two main reasons. Firstly, cheap inkjet prints are more prone to fading by exposure to daylight – but some manufacturers now claim that their products can last at least as long (around 40 years). Secondly, technically they are not ‘photographic’ [ie light-writing] prints but prints of photographic images. This means many serious collectors may not buy inkjet prints.
As well as making slightly larger sized prints, inkjet prints can offer greater black and white contrast and more vivid colour saturation. They also allow for printing on a wider range of paper types.
Many established photographers make and sell archival quality inkjet prints (calling them giclee, Iris or archival pigment prints) printed on fine art papers.
See:
Mari Mahr website has monochrome archival pigment prints alongside more traditional black and white photographic prints.
Most cheap inkjet printers can make useful ‘work prints’, soft proofs, and important learning log material (if you’re keeping a physical log). Investing in a high-end inkjet printer is only worthwhile if you intend to make quite a lot of prints regularly and put significant time into learning how to get the best performance from it. Ink cartridges are expensive, particularly quality professional inks, and if the photographic printer is not used frequently (i.e. weekly), the print heads can become clogged, leaving unsightly ‘banding’ on the image. Regular cleaning can prevent this, although it does waste ink. Some printers can be modified to accept what is known as a ‘continuous ink feed’ instead of cartridges, which will reduce ink costs considerably.
Papers vary in surface (i.e. gloss, semigloss/ lustre, matt), rag content, colour and texture. Different paper stocks vary in how they respond to the printer’s ink, and will absorb ink in different quantities. Different printer profiles need to be set in the printing software for different types of paper to avoid unwanted colour casts and get the right level of contrast.
Giclee, archival pigment or Iris prints
Giclée is the name given to inkjets by professional printers and artists, although this term is unregulated. The term ‘Giclée’, a neologism coined by French printmaker Jack Duganne, is derived from the French verb ‘gicler’, which literally translates as ‘to squirt’ or ‘to spray’ and describes the way that the printer nozzle applies the inks – or pigment inks – to the paper. Duganne chose the term as he was looking for a word which would not have the negative connotations then associated with the terms ‘inkjet’ which had happened due to fading occurring in early prints.
While the term ‘Giclée’ originally referred to fine art prints created on IRIS printers (large format colour inkjet printers which became prevalent in the 1980’s) the term ‘Giclée’ has since been used in a wider sense to describe any prints made using an inkjet process. These prints are also often known as ‘pigment prints’ because of the inks (which contains miniature particles of colour, or pigment, suspended in a neutral carrier liquid) that are laid down by a digital printer. We use both ‘Giclée print’ and ‘Pigment print’ to describe an archival grade inkjet print produced directly to fine art paper.
Anyone claiming to produce giclée prints should be using the best quality archival inks and equally high quality paper, with professional colour calibration of the print to the monitor.
For more video tutorials on Inkjet printing and up-to-date reviews of different printers see: See You Tube videos
Human vision is far superior to any camera in terms of the range of tones it can encompass within a single field of vision.
Early photographic emulsions were considerably more sensitive to blue light than to other colours on the spectrum of visible light. This meant that landscape photographs, particularly those made on clear days, had completely blown-out skies as the negatives were much denser in the skies than the foreground, resulting in loss of detail in the (positive) print.
Edward Muybridge made a library of clouds and skies that would be layered with a negative where the sky detail was absent in order to make photographs that were nearer to human perception.
The Zone System by Ansel Adams and Fred Archer (1889-1963) is a way to visualise how the tones visible in a scene can most effectively be rendered onto the photographic negative.
Adams (1981, 60) described the zone scale and its relationship to typical scene elements:
Zone
Description
0
Pure black
I
Near black, with slight tonality but no texture
II
Textured black; the darkest part of the image in which slight detail is recorded
III
Average dark materials and low values showing adequate texture
IV
Average dark foliage, dark stone, or landscape shadows
V
Middle gray: clear north sky; dark skin, average weathered wood
VI
Average Caucasian skin; light stone; shadows on snow in sunlit landscapes
VII
Very light skin; shadows in snow with acute side lighting
VIII
Lightest tone with texture: textured snow
IX
Slight tone without texture; glaring snow
X
Pure white: light sources and specular reflections
Adams (1981, 52) distinguished among three different exposure scales for the negative:
The full range from black to white, represented by Zone 0 through Zone X.
The dynamic range comprising Zone I through Zone IX, which Adams considered to represent the darkest and lightest “useful” negative densities.
The textural range comprising Zone II through Zone VIII. This range of zones conveys a sense of texture and the recognition of substance.
Adams and Archer sought to refine and better manage some if the many variables that affected exposure, such as developer formulae and development times, so that the photographer could more strictly control the contrast and range of tones rendered.
In reality both film and digital sensors can render many more ‘zones’ than just eleven. But reminds us that when you point a light meter at an object it reads it as mid grey (zone 5). Therefore the photographer has to decide where in the scene they wish Zone V to be in order to control exposure properly.
In colour photography this also needs to be adjusted to allow for the fact that different colours correspond to different tones – yellows are better slightly over-exposed while reds and blues under-exposed.
—————————————— TASK Demonstrate your awareness of the principles of the zone system and your ability to take accurate light readings by producing 3 photographs taken in relatively high dynamic range. The exposure should render as much detail as possible in the brightest and darkest areas of the photograph. Collate these and any reflections.
My reflections on the zone system:
The system sounds simple but in practice is quite complicated because much depends not only on the extreme white and black points where detail needs to be preserved, but the overall balance of dark and light tones that affect perception of clipping and also the desired key of the image for aesthetic reasons. This means that quite a lot of experimentation is needed to select the metering point that will give the desired result.
In digital photography, the important point is the preservation of detail in the image that will be available for post-processing rather than any ‘correct exposure’ in the unreliable LCD screen. It is therefore best to have the highlight clipping warning turned on, and also to review the histograms as one works.
In practice with images of the type of dynamic range I found on the sunniest day in winter, I could adjust both highlights in images exposed for the shadows and shadows in images exposed for the highlights equally easily to regain detail where I wanted them.
The zone system is certainly a useful guide, but will require a lot of practice to gain real confidence. Alternative methods are auto-bracketing, or using the camera’s matrix metering system together with the highlight clipping warning and exposure compensation where necessary. These two are arguably quicker unless I get really confident.
The Images
These images were taken along the river Cam on a sunny day. All the images had both slight black and slight white clipping and were just outside the Dynamic Range of my camera. I used Spot metering and experimented with different metering points to try and reflect the image I had in mind. Image 1: Graffiti
In Graffiti my interest was in maintaining detail in the sunlight on the silver graffiti rather than the dark bridge.
My first attempt took as mid grey the bright grass at the back assuming this was a mid-tone. But this image was much lighter than I wanted with too much clipping on the graffiti and very washed-out. Although the grass was mid-tone for the image as a whole, it was not mid-tone for the image I wanted.
My second attempt took the lighter path as the mid-tone. This then pushed all the other tones darker, giving me more detail on the graffiti.
In post-processing in Lightroom I found though that there was not much difference in what I could do with the image – adjusting the highlights, shadows, exposure and contrast I could achieve pretty much the same effect with either image.
Image 2: Bridge
In this image I wanted to highlight the dot of the duck and I was also interested in the white detail and reflections of the V shapes. Again I was not so interested in the shadows except as background contrast.
This second image was also just outside the dynamic range of my camera with both slight black and white clipping. But because the very white area takes up less of the image, choosing the grass as mid grey worked better because the smaller area of highlight clipping is less noticeable. I took further shots using the water, but that lightened the image too much. Metering from the lighter sky at the back became too dark.
Image 3: Wier
In this third image the dynamic range was not as great as it first appeared except for some bright sparkles on the water. The blacks were just within range. The image on the left was spot metered on the water, pushing everything too dark – the spot metre picked up the very tiny bright sparkles rather than the larger grey areas between. The second image I metered on the white water bottom left giving a wider tonal range.
SLR Camera Sensor
My second attempt took the lighter path as the mid-tone. This then pushed all the other tones darker, giving me more detail on the graffiti.
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